Fig. 1

Diurnal variations in air-sea fluxes (a), temperature profiles (b) and time series of layered temperature (c) confirmed by continuous shipboard observations in Price et al (1986). They developed and validated the mixed-layer model (PWP model) based on these observations"

Fig. 2

A simulation experiment concerning the influences of heat fluxes on wind-driven currents (Ide et al, 2016). The color indicates the wind-driven currents at different times of the day, and the vertical and horizontal coordinates represent the dimensionless velocities, respectively. U* is unit of normalized speed. Blue circle denotes approximate range of speed factor and deflection angle for winter."

Fig. 3

Changes in the summer east asian monsoon simulation (Hong et al, 2012), precipitation (a), temperature (b), sensible heat (c), and latent heat (d) considering the diurnal variation"

Fig. 4

Diurnal variation in latent heat in winter observed by buoys in the Kuroshio Extension (Clayson et al, 2019). Buoy locations and average LHF for December 2007 are shown in the right panel"

Fig. 5

Daily variations in air-sea turbulent heat fluxes observed by the operational buoys of the Ministry of Natural Resources (38o12′N, 121o06′E) in 2016 (Song, 2020). (a) and (b) denote the diurnal variations in latent and sensible heat in June; (c) and (d) denote the diurnal variations in November"

Fig. 6

Daily variations in net heat flux (a), wind stress (b) and SST structure (c and d) based on the observations and their responses to the diurnal variation in upper turbulence (Moulin et al, 2018)"

Fig. 7

Difference between bimonthly average results of global latent heat with and without daily variation of sea surface temperature (Weihs et al, 2014)"

Fig. 8

Turbulent heat flux observations including buoys of MNR (a), offshore observation platform of MNR (b), Black Pearl wave glider of Ocean University of China (c; Sun et al, 2019), and OCARINA glider recently developed by French scientists (d; Bourras et al, 2019)"

Fig. 9

A schematic diagram of buoy locations (a) and observation times (b) in global oceans. A is the OOI Southern Ocean buoy (purple). B-G and I are global tropical buoy observation arrays. H is the tropical monsoon observation buoy of the MNR (black). L and M are offshore buoys and platforms in China. J and K are USA NOAA flux observation buoys."